Q1: State two factors responsible for the rise of independent states in India.

Ans: Two major factors responsible were:
1. Weak and Incompetent Later Mughals: Successive puppet rulers after Aurangzeb could not control provincial governors or curb court factionalism.
2. Foreign Invasions: Devastating raids by Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali shattered imperial prestige, enabling provincial subahdars to declare independence.

Q2: Name the states that openly asserted their independence from the Mughal empire.

Ans: The principal regional powers were the Maratha Kingdom, the Sikh state of Punjab, the Rajput states (Mewar, Marwar, Amber), Mysore, and autonomous successor provinces: Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad.

Q3: Name the two main taxes levied by the Marathas.

Ans: The two main taxes were:
1. Chauth: One-fourth (25%) of the total land revenue collected from neighboring non-Maratha territories in return for protection against Maratha plundering raids.
2. Sardeshmukhi: An additional tenth (10%) levy demanded by Shivaji as hereditary supreme head (Sardeshmukh) of Maharashtra.

Q4: Explain guerilla warfare of Marathas.

Ans: Guerilla warfare (Ganimi Kava) was a hit-and-run military tactic. Lightly armed, swift Maratha horsemen utilized the rugged Western Ghats to launch sudden surprise attacks on vulnerable Mughal supply lines and camps, quickly retreating into mountain forts before the massive, unwieldy Mughal armies could respond.

Q5: State the condition of Indian society in the eighteenth century.

Ans: In the eighteenth century, Indian society suffered from rigid caste stratification, untouchability, and widespread poverty among peasants. Regressive social evils like Sati, child marriage, female infanticide, and the purdah system severely suppressed women, while feudal aristocrats lived in extravagance.

Q1: How did the three Nawabs of Bengal encourage trade?

Ans: The three capable Nawabs of Bengal—Murshid Quli Khan, Shuja-ud-din, and Alivardi Khan—recognized commerce as the lifeblood of Bengal’s prosperity and implemented several pro-trade measures:

• Strict Law and Order: They wiped out highway banditry and river piracy along the Ganges and Hooghly, providing complete safety for cargo vessels and trade caravans.
• Equal Protection to All Merchants: They extended royal patronage and security equally to Indian, Persian, Armenian, and European merchants without communal discrimination.
• Infrastructure Development: They constructed roads, bridges, secure public inns (sarais), and established thriving wholesale trading marts at Murshidabad, Dhaka, and Hugli.
• Financial Banking Support: They maintained close partnerships with wealthy banking houses, particularly the Jagat Seths (Bankers of the World), facilitating large-scale currency credit and loans.
• Regulation of European Trading Companies: They firmly controlled the English and French East India Companies, compelling them to pay municipal transit customs and preventing them from fortifying trading factories illegally.

Q2: Why did Banda Bahadur fail to strengthen the Sikh power?

Ans: Banda Singh Bahadur was a brave warrior who organized the Sikh peasantry and captured Sirhind, yet he failed to consolidate lasting Sikh political power due to the following reasons:

• Overwhelming Imperial Mughal Might: Emperor Farrukhsiyar dispatched a gigantic, well-equipped imperial army under seasoned generals to crush the rebellion.
• Opposition of Upper-Caste Landlords: Banda Bahadur’s radical agrarian reforms—abolishing the Zamindari system and giving land ownership directly to peasant cultivators—alienated wealthy Hindu and Muslim landowning elites, who allied with the Mughals against him.
• Lack of Heavy Artillery and Fortress Bases: The Sikhs possessed light cavalry and muskets, but lacked cannon artillery and defensive fortresses to withstand prolonged sieges.
• Internal Factionalism: Differences arose between the orthodox Tat Khalsa and Banda’s devoted followers (Bandai Khalsa), dividing their collective military strength.
• The Grueling Siege of Gurdas Nangal: Encircled in an unfortified haveli at Gurdas Nangal without food or supplies for eight months, he was captured and executed in Delhi in 1716.

Q3: What were the main features of the Maratha administration?

Ans: Chhatrapati Shivaji established an enlightened, systematic administrative structure known for honesty, efficiency, and welfare:

• The Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight Ministers): Shivaji was advised by an eight-member cabinet:
  • Peshwa (Prime Minister): Looked after general administration and state welfare.
  • Amatya / Mazumdar: Finance and accounts minister.
  • Senapati / Sari-i-Naubat: Commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
  • Waqia-Navis: Minister for intelligence and court records.
  • Sachiv / Shuru-Navis: Handled royal correspondence.
  • Sumant / Dabir: Foreign affairs minister.
  • Panditrao: Handled religious matters and royal charities.
  • Nyayadhish: Chief justice responsible for civil and criminal law.
• Territorial Division: His kingdom (Swarajya) was divided into provinces (Prants), districts (Parganas/Tarafs), and self-governing villages headed by Patils.
• Peasant-Friendly Revenue System: Shivaji abolished hereditary revenue farming (Jagirs) and collected taxes directly through state agents. Cultivable land was accurately surveyed with a measuring rod (Kathi), and assessment was fixed between 30% to 40% of actual produce. Loans (Taccavi) were given to farmers during droughts.
• Disciplined Standing Army & Navy: Soldiers were paid regular cash salaries rather than land grants. Strict rules prevented plunder of women, children, and holy books. He built a powerful coastal navy to protect trade.

Q4: Mention the steps taken by Tipu Sultan to challenge the authority of British.

Ans: Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, was the fiercest opponent of British colonial expansion in Southern India and adopted innovative measures to combat them:

• Modernization of the Army: He restructured his infantry and cavalry on modern European lines with the help of French officers, training troops in Western military tactics.
• Military Technology & Rocketry: He invented and deployed iron-cased Mysorean rockets (which had a range of nearly 2 km and caused havoc among British regiments), founding state arsenals and cannon foundries.
• International Diplomatic Alliances: To isolate the British globally, he sent diplomatic embassies to Revolutionary France (Napoleon Bonaparte), Ottoman Turkey, Afghanistan, and Iran seeking military assistance.
• Naval Modernization: He set up a modern naval board (Diwan-i-Bahr) and constructed dockyards at Mangalore, launching battleships to protect maritime trade against the British navy.
• Economic Self-Sufficiency: He established state trading companies, promoted sericulture, and banned trade with British merchants to damage their commercial profits.

Q5: Explain the achievements of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

Ans: Maharaja Ranjit Singh, famously known as the Sher-e-Punjab (Lion of Punjab), transformed Punjab into a sovereign world power through remarkable achievements:

• Unification of Punjab: He united the twelve quarreling Sikh clans (Misls) into a unified, sovereign Punjabi empire, capturing Lahore in 1799 (his capital), Amritsar in 1802, and later annexing Multan, Kashmir, and Peshawar.
• Creation of the Fauj-i-Khas: He built the second most powerful army in Asia after the British, modernized by European officers (French General Allard, Italian General Ventura, and American Court), equipped with sophisticated artillery and disciplined cavalry.
• Treaty of Amritsar (1809): He concluded a strategic treaty with the British, recognizing the Sutlej river as the mutual boundary, preserving his independence while expanding westwards towards the Afghan frontier.
• Secular and Inclusive Governance: His government was equitable and non-sectarian. Key ministers included Muslims like Foreign Minister Fakir Azizuddin, Hindus like Finance Minister Dewan Dina Nath, and Sikhs like General Hari Singh Nalwa.
• Patronage to Faith and Culture: He donated large grants to Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh institutions alike, famously cladding the upper storeys of the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar with pure gold leaf, which came to be celebrated worldwide as the Golden Temple.